Triatomines: Trypanosomatids, Bacteria, and Viruses Potential Vectors?

Triatominae bugs are the vectors of Chagas disease, a major concern to public health especially in Latin America, where vector-borne Chagas disease has undergone resurgence due mainly to diminished triatomine control in many endemic municipalities. Although the majority of Triatominae species occurs in the Americas, species belonging to the genus Linshcosteus occur in India, and species belonging to the Triatoma rubrofasciata complex have been also identified in Africa, the Middle East, South-East Asia, and in the Western Pacific. Not all of Triatominae species have been found to be infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, but the possibility of establishing vector transmission to areas where Chagas disease was previously non-endemic has increased with global population mobility. Additionally, the worldwide distribution of triatomines is concerning, as they are able to enter in contact and harbor other pathogens, leading us to wonder if they would have competence and capacity to transmit them to humans during the bite or after successful blood feeding, spreading other infectious diseases. In this review, we searched the literature for infectious agents transmitted to humans by Triatominae. There are reports suggesting that triatomines may be competent vectors for pathogens such as Serratia marcescens, Bartonella, and Mycobacterium leprae, and that triatomine infection with other microrganisms may interfere with triatomine-T. cruzi interactions, altering their competence and possibly their capacity to transmit Chagas disease.

Immune defence mechanisms of triatomines against bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites.

Triatomines are vectors that transmit the protozoan haemoflagellate Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease. The aim of the current review is to provide a synthesis of the immune mechanisms of triatomines against bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites to provide clues for areas of further research including biological control. Regarding bacteria, the triatomine immune response includes antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as defensins, lysozymes, attacins and cecropins, whose sites of synthesis are principally the fat body and haemocytes. These peptides are used against pathogenic bacteria (especially during ecdysis and feeding), and also attack symbiotic bacteria. In relation to viruses, Triatoma virus is the only one known to attack and kill triatomines. Although the immune response to this virus is unknown, we hypothesize that haemocytes, phenoloxidase (PO) and nitric oxide (NO) could be activated. Different fungal species have been described in a few triatomines and some immune components against these pathogens are PO and proPO. In relation to parasites, triatomines respond with AMPs, including PO, NO and lectin. In the case of T. cruzi this may be effective, but Trypanosoma rangeli seems to evade and suppress PO response. Although it is clear that three parasite-killing processes are used by triatomines - phagocytosis, nodule formation and encapsulation - the precise immune mechanisms of triatomines against invading agents, including trypanosomes, are as yet unknown. The signalling processes used in triatomine immune response are IMD, Toll and Jak-STAT. Based on the information compiled, we propose some lines of research that include strategic approaches of biological control.

Phylogenetics based on partial ORF2 of triatoma virus in triatomines collected over a decade from domiciliary habitats.

The only virus sequenced and studied in triatomines is the Triatoma virus, from the Dicistroviridae family, which causes delayed development, reduced oviposition, and premature death of infected insects. With the goal of expanding the sequences already obtained in previous years and verifying if any changes occurred in their genomic sequences, 68 samples of triatomines from several provinces of Argentina were analyzed. Sixteen positive samples were obtained by Reverse Transcription (RT)-polymerase chain reaction using the VP3-VP1 subregion of open reading frame-2 as a diagnostic method; after sequencing, 11 samples were obtained from Triatoma infestans. These new sequences showed no significant differences in the analyzed regions, which were not grouped by species or habitat or geographical distribution. There were no differences when compared with the sequences found during 2002-2012, all obtained from the wild. We conclude that despite being an RNA virus, the different sequences show high homology.

Estudio histopatológico y ultraestructural de la infección de Beauveria bassiana (Ascomycota) sobre Rhodnius prolixus (Triatominae) / Histopathological and ultraestructural study of Beauveria bassiana (Ascomycota) infection on Rhodnius prolixus (Triatominae)

Se realizó un estudio para indagar aspectos histopatológicos y ultraestructurales de la interacción entre un aislamiento nativo (LF14) del hongo entomopatógeno Beauveria bassiana (Ascomycota, Hypocreales) y ninfas de quinto estadio y adultos de Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera, Reduviidae, Triatominae). En los primeros estadios de la infección se observaron las conidias adheridas al exoesqueleto y en el momento de su penetración del tubo germinal. Después de la penetración vía tegumento y traqueolas del hemocele, las hifas invadieron virtualmente todos los tejidos y órganos, con el subsiguiente fallecimiento del insecto. En el último estadio del proceso infeccioso, se detectó la infección masiva del hifomiceto penetrando todo el cuerpo de adentro hacia aberturas del tegumento, para finalmente esporular, observándose numerosos conidios desprendidos de los conidióforos. La Microscopía Electrónica de Transmisión (MET) reveló una invasión masiva de hifas y micelios fúngicos en todo el hemocele, con hemocitos fagocitando, encapsulando y melanizando al hongo. Durante la penetración tisular y tegumentaria de las hifas, se observan áreas electrotransparentes que sugieren actividad enzimática.

A histopathological and ultrastructural study was used to describe the mode of interaction between a native isolate (LF14) of entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Ascomycota, Hypocreales) and nymphs/adults of Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera, Reduviidae, Triatominae). Conidia germinate on the surface of triatomine bugs and immediately begin penetration of the cuticle and spiracles by germinal tube. Once invade the haemocele, the fungus multiplies extensively whole insect tissues and organs, leading to triatomine death. When insect cadaver is in mummification stage, outgrowths of fungal hyphae occur first and most extensively in the intersegmental regions of triatomines, emerging at the surface, where they initiate sporulation process. Electron Transmission Microscopy (ETM) studies revealed abundant growth of fungal hypahe and micelar into haemocele, with haemocytic infiltration during fagocitation, encapsulation and melanization process of fungal structures. Areas of low electron-density were frequently observed, suggesting the secretion of enzymes by hyphae to weaken and penetrating cuticle and tissues.

Direct methods for detecting picorna-like virus from dead and alive triatomine insects.

In this work we report four different destructive and non-destructive methods for detecting picorna-like virus particles in triatomines. The methods are based on direct observation under transmission electron microscope and they consist of four ways to prepare samples of presumable infected material. The samples are prepared processing dead or alive insect parts, or even dry or fresh insect feces. The methods can be used as analytical or preparative techniques, for quantifying virus infection and checking virus integrity as well. In this work the four methods are applied in order to detect Triatoma virus (TrV) particles in T. infestans colonies.

Direct methods for detecting picorna-like virus from dead and alive Triatomine insects

In this work we report four different destructive and non-destructive methods for detecting picorna-like virus particles in triatomines. The methods are based on direct observation under transmission electron microscope and they consist of four ways to prepare samples of presumable infected material. The samples are prepared processing dead or alive insect parts, or even dry or fresh insect feces. The methods can be used as analytical or preparative techniques, for quantifying virus infection and checking virus integrity as well. In this work the four methods are applied in order to detect Triatoma virus (TrV) particles in T. infestans colonies.

[Determination of HIV protein 24 in feces of Triatoma infestans fed with blood from AIDS patients]. / Pesquisa da proteína 24 do vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV) nas fezes de triatomíneos alimentados em pacientes com AIDS.

OBJECTIVE: To verify any possibility of the elimination of p24 in feces of Triatoma infestans, p24 being an antigen and one of the markers of HIV infection. The purpose of the study was the evaluation of any risk of contamination by laboratory staff who work with activities related to this particular insect, and also investigate any mechanism that might thus lead to the dissemination of HIV. METHOD: Triatoma infestans were fed with p24-marked blood from 23 AIDS patients. Twenty-four and 48 hours later, their feces were examined in order to verify the presence of the antigen. The search for p24 was performed by means of the immunoenzymatic technique. RESULT AND CONCLUSION: No protein 24 was detected in any of the samples. In accordance with the applied methodology, the purpose of showing that the elimination of p24 does not occur, was obtained. Were this question approached in other ways different results might reveal new information in terms of risks of HIV dissemination.

Trypanosoma cruzi strains: behavior after passage into authoctonous or foreign species of treatomine (biological and biochemical patterns)

Foi estudada a influencia da passagem de cepas do T. cruzi de Sao Felipe - BA (19 SF, 21 SF e 22 SF), Tipo II, Zimodema 2, no vetor autoctone (P. megistus) e em vetores nao autoctones (T. infestans e R. prolixus). Para cada cepa, camundongos suicos de 10 a 12 g foram inoculados com I - formas sanguicolas (controles); II - metaciclicos do P. megistus; III - metaciclicos de T. infestans; IV - metaciclicos do R. prolixus. O inoculo para cada grupo foi de 10 a quarta potencia tripomastigotas. A obtencao dos metaciclicos foi feita 60 a 120 dias apos infeccao dos triatomineos...